the origins of contemporary france-4-第39部分

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unique；　predominates：



*　The　aim　of　the　monk　is　to　please　God　at　any　sacrifice。

*　The　soldier　makes　every　sacrifice　to　obtain　a　victory。



Accordingly；　each　renounces　every　other　desire　and　entirely　abandons

himself；　the　monk　to　his　rules　and　the　soldier　to　his　drill。　　In　like

manner；　in　the　antique　world；　two　preoccupations　were　of　supreme

importance。　　In　the　first　place；　the　city　had　its　gods　who　were　both

its　founders　and　protectors：　it　was　therefore　obliged　to　worship　these

in　the　most　reverent　and　particular　manner；　otherwise；　they　abandoned

it。　　The　neglect　of　any　insignificant　rite　might　offend　them　and　ruin

it。　　In　the　second　place；　there　was　incessant　warfare；　and　the　spoils

of　war　were　atrocious；　on　a　city　being　taken　every　citizen　might

expect　to　be　killed　or　maimed；　or　sold　at　auction；　and　see　his

children　and　wife　sold　to　the　highest　bidder。＇2＇　In　short；　the　antique

city；　with　its　acropolis　of　temples　and　its　fortified　citadel

surrounded　by　implacable　and　threatening　enemies；　resembles　for　us　the

institution　of　the　Knights　of　St。　　John　on　their　rocks　at　Rhodes　or

Malta；　a　religious　and　military　confraternity　encamped　around　a

church。　　…　Liberty；　under　such　conditions；　is　out　of　the　question：

public　convictions　are　too　imperious；　public　danger　is　too　great。

With　this　pressure　upon　him；　and　thus　hampered；　the　individual　gives

himself　up　to　the　community；　which　takes　full　possession　of　him；

because；　to　maintain　its　own　existence；　it　needs　the　whole　man。

Henceforth；　no　one　may　develop　apart　and　for　himself；　no　one　may　act

or　think　except　within　fixed　lines。　　The　type　of　Man　is　distinctly　and

clearly　marked　out；　if　not　logically　at　least　traditionally；　each

life；　as　well　as　each　portion　of　each　life　must　conform　to　this　type；

otherwise　public　security　is　compromised：　any　falling　off　in　gymnastic

education　weakens　the　army；　passing　the　images　of　the　gods　and

neglecting　the　usual　libation　draws　down　celestial　vengeance　on　the

city。　　Consequently；　to　prevent　all　deviations；　the　State；　absolute

master；　exercises　unlimited　jurisdiction；　no　freedom　whatever　is　left

to　the　individual；　no　portion　of　himself　is　reserved　to　himself；　no

sheltered　corner　against　the　strong　hand　of　public　force；　neither　his

possessions；　his　children；　his　personality；　his　opinions　or　his

conscience。＇3＇　If；　on　voting　days；　he　shares　in　the　sovereignty；　he　is

subject　all　the　rest　of　the　year；　even　to　his　private　sentiments。

Rome；　to　serve　these　ends；　had　two　censors。　　One　of　the　archons　of

Athens　was　inquisitor　of　the　faith。　　Socrates　was　put　to　death　for　not

believing　in　the　gods　in　which　the　city　believed。＇4＇　…　In　reality；　not

only　in　Greece　and　in　Rome；　but　in　Egypt；　in　China；　in　India；　in

Persia；　in　Judea；　in　Mexico；　in　Peru；　during　the　first　stages　of

civilization；＇5＇　the　principle　of　human　communities　is　still　that　of

gregarious　animals：　the　individual　belongs　to　his　community　the　same

as　the　bee　to　its　hive　and　the　ant　to　its　ant…hill；　he　is　simply　an

organ　within　an　organism。　　Under　a　variety　of　structures　and　in

diverse　applications　authoritative　socialism　alone　prevails。



Just　the　opposite　in　modern　society；　what　was　once　the　rule　has　now

become　the　exception；　the　antique　system　survives　only　in　temporary

associations；　like　that　of　an　army；　or　in　special　associations；　as　in

a　convent。　　Gradually；　the　individual　has　liberated　himself；　and

century　after　century；　he　has　extended　his　domain　and　the　two　chains

which　once　bound　him　fast　to　the　community；　have　snapped　or　been

lightened。



In　the　first　place；　public　power　has　ceased　to　consist　of　a　militia

protecting　a　cult。　　In　the　beginning；　through　the　institution　of

Christianity；　civil　society　and　religious　society　have　become　two

distinct　empires；　Christ　himself　having　separated　the　two

jurisdictions；



　〃Render　unto　C？sar　the　things　which　are　C？sar's；　and　unto　God　the

things　that　are　God's。〃



Additionally；　through　the　rise　of　Protestantism；　the　great　Church　is

split　into　numerous　sects　which；　unable　to　destroy　each　other；　have

been　so　compelled　to　live　together　and　the　State；　even　when　preferring

one　of　them；　has　found　it　necessary　to　tolerate　the　others。　　Finally；

through　the　development　of　Protestantism；　philosophy　and　the　sciences；

speculative　beliefs　have　multiplied。　　There　are　almost　as　many　faiths

now…a…days　as　there　are　thinking　men；　and；　as　thinking　men　are

becoming　daily　more　numerous；　opinions　are　daily　becoming　more

numerous。　　So　should　the　State　try　to　impose　any　one　of　these　on

society；　this　would　excite　opposition　from　an　infinity　of　others；

hence　the　wisdom　in　governing　is　found；　first；　in　remaining　neutral；

and；　next；　in　acknowledging　that　it　is　not　qualified　to　interfere。



In　the　second　place；　war　has　become　less　frequent　and　less　destructive

because　men　have　not　so　many　motives　for　waging　it；　nor　the　same

motives　to　push　it　to　the　same　extremes。　　Formerly；　war　was　the　main

source　of　wealth；　through　victories　Man　acquired　slaves；　subjects　and

tributaries；　he　turned　these　to　the　best　account；　he　leisurely　enjoyed

their　forced　labor。　　Nothing　of　this　kind　is　seen　now…a…days；　people

no　longer　think　of　providing　themselves　human　cattle；　they　have

discovered　that；　of　all　animals；　these　are　the　most　troublesome；　the

least　productive；　and　the　most　dangerous。　　Comforts　and　security　are

obtained　much　more　readily　through　free　labor　and　machinery；　the　great

object　no　is　not　to　conquer；　but　to　produce　and　interchange。　　Every

day；　man；　pressing　forward　more　eagerly　in　civil　careers；　is　less

disposed　to　put　up　with　any　obstacle　that　interferes　with　his　aims；　if

he　still　consents　to　be　a　soldier　it　is　not　to　become　an　invader；　but

to　provide　against　invasion。　　Meanwhile；　war　has　become　more

scientific　and；　through　the　complications　of　its　machinery；　more

costly；　the　State　can　no　longer　call　out　and　enlist　for　life　every

able…bodied　man　without　ruining　itself；　nor　put　too　many　obstacles　in

the　way　of　the　free　industry　which；　through　taxation；　provides　for　its

expenses；　however　short…sighted　the　State　may　be；　it　consults　civil

interests；　even　in　its　military　interest。　　…　Thus；　of　the　two　nets　in

which　it　has　enveloped　all　human　activity；　one　is　rent　asunder　and　the

other　has　slackened　its　meshes。　　There　is　no　longer　any　reason　for

making　the　community　omnipotent；　the　individual　need　not　alienate

himself　entirely；　he　may；　without　inconvenience；　reserve　to　himself　a

part　of　himself；　and；　if　now　called　upon　to　sign　a　social　contract；

you　may　be　sure　that　he　would　make　this　reservation。





II



Changed　minds。　　…　Conscience　and　its　Christian　origin。　　…　Honor　and

its　feudal　origin。　　…　The　individual　of　to…day　refuses　to　surrender

himself　entirely。　　…　His　motives。　　…　Additional　motives　in　modern

democracy。　　…　Character　of　the　elective　process　and　the　quality　of　the

representative。



And　so　have　not　only　outward　circumstances　changed；　but　the　very　human

attitud