evolution and ethics and other essays-第33部分

快捷操作: 按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页 按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页 按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部! 如果本书没有阅读完，想下次继续接着阅读，可使用上方 "收藏到我的浏览器" 功能 和 "加入书签" 功能！


proposition　that　capital　is　necessary　to　the　exertion　of　productive
labour；　the　term　〃capital〃　is　understood　as　including　all　food；
clothing；　shelter；　&c。；　whereas　in　the　deductions　finally　drawn　from
it；　the　term　is　used　in　its　common　and　legitimate　meaning　of　wealth
devoted；　not　to　the　immediate　gratification　of　desire；　but　to　the
procurement　of　more　wealthof　wealth　in　the　hands　of　employers　as
distinguished　from　labourers〃　（p。　40）。

＇182＇　I　am　by　no　means　concerned　to　defend　the　political　economists　who
are　thus　charged　with　blundering；　but　I　shall　be　surprised　to　learn
that　any　have　carried　the　art　of　self…entanglement　to　the　degree　of
perfection　exhibited　by　this　passage。　Who　has　ever　imagined　that
wealth　which；　in　the　hands　of　an　employer；　is　capital；　ceases　to　be
capital　if　it　is　in　the　hands　of　a　labourer？　Suppose　a　workman　to　be
paid　thirty　shillings　on　Saturday　evening　for　six　days'　labour；　that
thirty　shillings　comes　out　of　the　employer's　capital；　and　receives　the
name　of　〃wages〃　simply　because　it　is　exchanged　for　labour。　In　the
workman's　pocket；　as　he　goes　home；　it　is　a　part　of　his　capital；　in
exactly　the　same　sense　as；　half　an　hour　before；　it　was　part　of　the
employer's　capital；　he　is　a　capitalist　just　as　much　as　if　he　were　a
Rothschild。　Suppose　him　to　be　a　single　man；　whose　cooking　and
household　matters　are　attended　to　by　the　people　of　the　house　in　which
he　has　a　room；　then　the　rent　which　he　pays　them　out　of　this　capital
is；　in　part；　wages　for　their　labour；　and　he　is；　so　far；　an　employer。
If　he　saves　one　shilling　out　of　his　thirty；　he　has；　to　that　extent；
added　to　his　capital　when　the　next　Saturday　comes　round。　And　if　he
puts　his　saved　shillings　week　by　week　into　the　Savings　Bank；　the
difference　between　him　and　the　most　bloated　of　bankers　is　simply　one
of　degree。

At　page　42；　we　are　confidently　told　that　＇183＇　〃labourers　by　receiving
wages〃　cannot　lessen　〃even　temporarily〃　the　〃capital　of　the　employer；〃
while　at　page　44　it　is　admitted　that　in　certain　cases　the　capitalist
〃pays　out　capital　in　wages。〃　One　would　think　that　the　〃paying　out〃　of
capital　is　hardly　possible　without　at　least　a　〃temporary〃　diminution
of　the　capital　from　which　payment　is　made。　But　〃Progress　and　Poverty〃
changes　all　that　by　a　little　verbal　legerdemain：

　　　　　。　。　。　〃For　where　wages　are　paid　before　the　object　of　the　labour
　　　　　　　　　　　is　obtained；　or　is　finishedas　in　agriculture；　where
　　　　　　　　　　　ploughing　and　sowing　must　precede　by　several　months　the
　　　　　　　　　　　harvesting　of　the　crop；　as　in　the　erection　of　buildings；
　　　　　　　　　　　the　construction　of　ships；　railroads；　canals；　&c。it　is
　　　　　　　　　　　clear　that　the　owners　of　the　capital　paid　in　wages　cannot
　　　　　　　　　　　expect　an　immediate　return；　but；　as　the　phrase　is；　must
　　　　　　　　　　　〃outlay　it〃　or　〃lie　out　of　it〃　for　a　time　which　sometimes
　　　　　　　　　　　amounts　to　many　years。　And　hence；　if　first　principles　are
　　　　　　　　　　　not　kept　in　mind；　it　is　easy　to　jump　to　the　conclusion
　　　　　　　　　　　that　wages　are　advanced　by　capital〃　（p。　44）。

Those　who　have　paid　attention　to　the　argument　of　former　parts　of　this
paper　may　not　be　able　to　understand　how；　if　sound　〃first　principles
are　kept　in　mind；〃　any　other　conclusion　can　be　reached；　whether　by
jumping；　or　by　any　other　mode　of　logical　progression。　But　the　first
principle　which　our　author　〃keeps　in　mind〃　possesses　just　that　amount
of　ambiguity　which　enables　him　to　play　hocus…pocus　with　it。　It　is
this；　that　〃the　creation　of　value　does　not　depend　upon　the　finishing
of　the　product〃　（p。　44）。

＇184＇　There　is　no　doubt　that；　under　certain　limitations；　this
proposition　is　correct。　It　is　not　true　that　〃labour　always　adds　to
capital　by　its　exertion　before　it　takes　from　capital　its　wages〃　（p。
44）；　but　it　is　true　that　it　may；　and　often　does；　produce　that　effect。

To　take　one　of　the　examples　given；　the　construction　of　a　ship。　The
shaping　of　the　timbers　undoubtedly　gives　them　a　value　（for　a
shipbuilder）　which　they　did　not　possess　before。　When　they　are　put
together　to　constitute　the　framework　of　the　ship；　there　is　a　still
further　addition　of　value　（for　a　shipbuilder）；　and　when　the　outside
planking　is　added；　there　is　another　addition　（for　a　shipbuilder）。
Suppose　everything　else　about　the　hull　is　finished；　except　the　one
little　item　of　caulking　the　seams；　there　is　no　doubt　that　it　has　still
more　value　for　a　shipbuilder。　But　for　whom　else　has　it　any　value；
except　perhaps　for　a　fire…wood　merchant？　What　price　will　any　one　who
wants　a　shipthat　is　to　say；　something　that　will　carry　a　cargo　from
one　port　to　anothergive　for　the　unfinished　vessel　which　would　take
water　in　at　every　seam　and　go　down　in　half　an　hour；　if　she　were
launched？　Suppose　the　shipbuilder's　capital　to　fail　before　the　vessel
is　caulked；　and　that　he　cannot　find　another　shipbuilder　who　cares　to
buy　and　finish　it；　what　sort　of　proportion　does　the　value　created　by
the　labour；　for　which　he　has　paid　out　of　his　capital；　stand　to　that　of
his　advances？

＇185＇　Surely　no　one　will　give　him　one…tenth　of　the　capital　disbursed
in　wages；　perhaps　not　so　much　even　as　the　prime　cost　of　the　raw
materials。　　Therefore；　though　the　assertion　that　〃the　creation　of
value　does　not　depend　on　the　finishing　of　the　product〃　may　be　strictly
true　under　certain　circumstances；　it　need　not　be　and　is　not　always
true。　And；　if　it　is　meant　to　imply　or　suggest　that　the　creation　of
value　in　a　manufactured　article　does　not　depend　upon　the　finishing　of
that　article；　a　more　serious　error　could　hardly　be　propounded。

Is　there　not　a　prodigious　difference　in　the　value　of　an　uncaulked　and
in　that　of　a　finished　ship；　between　the　value　of　a　house　in　which　only
the　tiles　of　the　roof　are　wanting　and　a　finished　house；　between　that
of　a　clock　which　only　lacks　the　escapement　and　a　finished　clock？

As　ships；　house；　and　clock；　the　unfinished　articles　have　no　value
whateverthat　is　to　say；　no　person　who　wanted　to　purchase　one　of
these　things；　for　immediate　use；　would　give　a　farthing　for　either。　The
only　value　they　can　have；　apart　from　that　of　the　materials　they
contain；　is　that　which　they　possess　for　some　one　who　can　finish　them；
or　for　some　one　who　can　make　use　of　parts　of　them　for　the　construction
of　other　things。　A　man　might　buy　an　unfinished　house　for　the　sake　of
the　bricks；　or　he　might　buy　an　incomplete　clock　to　use　the　works　for
some　other　piece　of　machinery。

Thus；　though　every　stage　of　the　labour　＇186＇　bestowed　on　raw　material；
for　the　purpose　of　giving　rise　to　a　certain　product；　confers　some
additional　value　on　that　material　in　the　estimation　of　those　who　are
engaged　in　manufacturing　that　product；　the　ratio　of　that　accumulated
value；　at　any　stage　of　the　process；　to　the　value　of　the　finished
product　is　extremely　inconstant；　and　often　small；　while；　to　other
persons；　the　value　of　the　unfinished　product　may　be　nothing；　or　even　a
minus　quantity。　A　house…timber　merchant；　for　example；　might　consider
that　wood　which　had　been　worked　into　the　ribs　of　a　ship　was
spoiledthat　is；　had　less　value　than　it　had　as　a　log。

According　to　〃Progress　and　Poverty；〃　there　was；　really；　no　advance　of
capital　while　the　great　St。　Gothard　tunnel　was　cut。　Suppose　that；　as
the　Swiss　and　the　I