on sophistical refutations-第15部分

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possible　to　have　what　one　has　not　received；　e。g。　to　have　received



sweet　wine；　but　then；　owing　to　its　going　bad　in　the　course　of　receipt；



to　have　it　sour。　But；　as　was　said　also　above；'　all　these　persons



direct　their　solutions　against　the　man；　not　against　his　argument。



For　if　this　were　a　genuine　solution；　then；　suppose　any　one　to　grant



the　opposite；　he　could　find　no　solution；　just　as　happens　in　other



cases；　e。g。　suppose　the　true　solution　to　be　'So…and…so　is　partly



true　and　partly　not'；　then；　if　the　answerer　grants　the　expression



without　any　qualification；　the　sophist's　conclusion　follows。　If；　on



the　other　hand；　the　conclusion　does　not　follow；　then　that　could　not　be



the　true　solution：　and　what　we　say　in　regard　to　the　foregoing　examples



is　that；　even　if　all　the　sophist's　premisses　be　granted；　still　no



proof　is　effected。



　　Moreover；　the　following　too　belong　to　this　group　of　arguments。　'If



something　be　in　writing　did　some　one　write　it？'　'Yes。'　'But　it　is



now　in　writing　that　you　are　seated…a　false　statement；　though　it　was



true　at　the　time　when　it　was　written：　therefore　the　statement　that　was



written　is　at　the　same　time　false　and　true。'　But　this　is　fallacious；



for　the　falsity　or　truth　of　a　statement　or　opinion　indicates　not　a



substance　but　a　quality：　for　the　same　account　applies　to　the　case　of



an　opinion　as　well。　Again；　'Is　what　a　learner　learns　what　he



learns？'　'Yes。'　'But　suppose　some　one　learns　〃slow〃　quick'。　Then　his



（the　sophist's）　words　denote　not　what　the　learner　learns　but　how　he



learns　it。　Also；　'Does　a　man　tread　upon　what　he　walks　through？



'Yes。'　'But　X　walks　through　a　whole　day。'　No；　rather　the　words



denote　not　what　he　walks　through；　but　when　he　walks；　just　as　when



any　one　uses　the　words　'to　drink　the　cup'　he　denotes　not　what　he



drinks；　but　the　vessel　out　of　which　he　drinks。　Also；　'Is　it　either



by　learning　or　by　discovery　that　a　man　knows　what　he　knows？'　'Yes。'



'But　suppose　that　of　a　pair　of　things　he　has　discovered　one　and



learned　the　other；　the　pair　is　not　known　to　him　by　either　method。'　No：



'what'　he　knows；　means'　every　single　thing'　he　knows；　individually；



but　this　does　not　mean　'all　the　things'　he　knows；　collectively。　Again；



there　is　the　proof　that　there　is　a　'third　man'　distinct　from　Man　and



from　individual　men。　But　that　is　a　fallacy；　for　'Man'；　and　indeed





every　general　predicate；　denotes　not　an　individual　substance；　but　a



particular　quality；　or　the　being　related　to　something　in　a



particular　manner；　or　something　of　that　sort。　Likewise　also　in　the



case　of　'Coriscus'　and　'Coriscus　the　musician'　there　is　the　problem；



Are　they　the　same　or　different？'　For　the　one　denotes　an　individual



substance　and　the　other　a　quality；　so　that　it　cannot　be　isolated；



though　it　is　not　the　isolation　which　creates　the　'third　man'；　but



the　admission　that　it　is　an　individual　substance。　For　'Man'　cannot



be　an　individual　substance；　as　Callias　is。　Nor　is　the　case　improved



one　whit　even　if　one　were　to　call　the　clement　he　has　isolated　not　an



individual　substance　but　a　quality：　for　there　will　still　be　the　one



beside　the　many；　just　as　'Man'　was。　It　is　evident　then　that　one　must



not　grant　that　what　is　a　common　predicate　applying　to　a　class



universally　is　an　individual　substance；　but　must　say　that　denotes



either　a　quality；　or　a　relation；　or　a　quantity；　or　something　of　that



kind。







　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　23







　　It　is　a　general　rule　in　dealing　with　arguments　that　depend　on



language　that　the　solution　always　follows　the　opposite　of　the　point　on



which　the　argument　turns：　e。g。　if　the　argument　depends　upon



combination；　then　the　solution　consists　in　division；　if　upon　division；



then　in　combination。　Again；　if　it　depends　on　an　acute　accent；　the



solution　is　a　grave　accent；　if　on　a　grave　accent；　it　is　an　acute。　If



it　depends　on　ambiguity；　one　can　solve　it　by　using　the　opposite



term；　e。g。　if　you　find　yourself　calling　something　inanimate；　despite



your　previous　denial　that　it　was　so；　show　in　what　sense　it　is　alive：



if；　on　the　other　hand；　one　has　declared　it　to　be　inanimate　and　the



sophist　has　proved　it　to　be　animate；　say　how　it　is　inanimate。　Likewise



also　in　a　case　of　amphiboly。　If　the　argument　depends　on　likeness　of



expression；　the　opposite　will　be　the　solution。　'Could　a　man　give



what　he　has　not　got？　'No；　not　what　he　has　not　got；　but　he　could　give



it　in　a　way　in　which　he　has　not　got　it；　e。g。　one　die　by　itself。'



Does　a　man　know　either　by　learning　or　by　discovery　each　thing　that



he　knows；　singly？　but　not　the　things　that　he　knows；　collectively。'



Also　a　man　treads；　perhaps；　on　any　thing　he　walks　through；　but　not



on　the　time　he　walks　through。　Likewise　also　in　the　case　of　the　other



examples。







　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　24







　　In　dealing　with　arguments　that　depend　on　Accident；　one　and　the



same　solution　meets　all　cases。　For　since　it　is　indeterminate　when　an



attribute　should　be　ascribed　to　a　thing；　in　cases　where　it　belongs



to　the　accident　of　the　thing；　and　since　in　some　cases　it　is



generally　agreed　and　people　admit　that　it　belongs；　while　in　others



they　deny　that　it　need　belong；　we　should　therefore；　as　soon　as　the



conclusion　has　been　drawn；　say　in　answer　to　them　all　alike；　that　there



is　no　need　for　such　an　attribute　to　belong。　One　must；　however；　be



prepared　to　adduce　an　example　of　the　kind　of　attribute　meant。　All



arguments　such　as　the　following　depend　upon　Accident。　'Do　you　know



what　I　am　going　to　ask　you？　you　know　the　man　who　is　approaching'；　or



'the　man　in　the　mask'？　'Is　the　statue　your　work　of　art？'　or　'Is　the



dog　your　father？'　'Is　the　product　of　a　small　number　with　a　small



number　a　small　number？'　For　it　is　evident　in　all　these　cases　that



there　is　no　necessity　for　the　attribute　which　is　true　of　the　thing's



accident　to　be　true　of　the　thing　as　well。　For　only　to　things　that



are　indistinguishable　and　one　in　essence　is　it　generally　agreed　that



all　the　same　attributes　belong；　whereas　in　the　case　of　a　good　thing；



to　be　good　is　not　the　same　as　to　be　going　to　be　the　subject　of　a



question；　nor　in　the　case　of　a　man　approaching；　or　wearing　a　mask；



is　'to　be　approaching'　the　same　thing　as　'to　be　Coriscus'；　so　that



suppose　I　know　Coriscus；　but　do　not　know　the　man　who　is　approaching；



it　still　isn't　the　case　that　I　both　know　and　do　not　know　the　same　man；



nor；　again；　if　this　is　mine　and　is　also　a　work　of　art；　is　it　therefore



my　work　of　art；　but　my　property　or　thing　or　something　else。　（The



solution　is　after　the　same　manner　in　the　other　cases　as　well。）



　　Some　solve　these　refutations　by　demolishing　the　original　proposition



asked：　for　they　say　that　it　is　possible　to　know　and　not　to　know　the



same　thing；　only　not　in　the　same　respect：　accordingly；　when　they　don't



know　the　man　who　is　coming　towards　them；　but　do　know　Corsicus；　they



assert　that　they　do　know　and　do